I decided to try just dd'ing (a low-level copy) the failing main drive onto the good backup one. First I used fdisk -l to see which drive was which Linux device. Fortunately the drives are exactly the same size. I used this command to perform the copy and see the progress:
dd if=/dev/SOURCE of=/dev/DEST bs=1M conv=sync,noerror iflag=fullblock status=progress
It did encounter a read error from the failing drive along the way, but proceeded to completion. Concerningly, there was a "disk full" error at the very end - hopefully it didn't get off by one block somewhere in the middle.
When I rebooted into Windows, it used the backup disk (since that was numbered first by the SATA controller, I think) and brought the old disk offline due to a signature collision. So far everything seems to be working great. Due to that read error, there's probably some blank bytes in some file somewhere that will be exciting when discovered, but for now the system seems OK!
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